Custom Written Term Papers: The Role of Women in Othello

The Role of Women in Othello At the beginning of Othello two men stand and discuss the fate of a woman. One contested for her and lost and the opposite willingly admits to her beauty, charm and worth. Both men wish to bring down the man who has won her, Desdemona, and slander her name nonetheless. This man, their rival and superior is none opposite than Othello. Othello has managed to obtain something they could not Desdemona. Throughout the play Desdemona is rargonly viewed as a human being, she is merely a prize, and from the very beginning Desdemona is an object of lust. Emilia and Bianca atomic number 18 also mistreated in this way. The three women in the play Desdemona, Emilia and Bianca contrast in class. Desdemona is born from a high-class Venetian family, Emilia is from a servant class and Bianca is a prostitute or whore, a word that Desdemona refuses to use. Despite this they are all abused by men and are objects of mens sexuality, and they all suffer under the cruel hand s of those whom they love. Each one is shown in relation to a particular man, (Othello, Iago and Cassio) and is contrasted with the other women, which reveal how the conventional version of womanhood impacts their lives, (in Desdemona and Emilias case, their deaths). The three womens eventual destinies are interlinked with the plays central symbol the handkerchief. Women are major characters in Shakespeares plays. In Othello women are ... ...e Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB University of Nebraska Press, 1993. Muir, Kenneth. Introduction. William Shakespeare Othello. New York Penguin Books, 1968. Neely, Carol. Women and Men in Othello Critical Essays on Shakespeares Othello. Ed. Anthony G. Barthelemy Pub. Macmillan New York, NY 1994. (page 68-90) Shakespeare, William. Othello. In The Electric Shakespeare. Princeton University. 1996. http//www.eiu.edu/multilit/studyabroad/othello/othello_all.html No line nos. Wayne, Valerie. Historical residues Misogyny and Othel lo. The Matter of Difference Materialist Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare. Ed Valerie Wayne. Ithaca, NY Cornell University Press, 1991.

Reflective essays -- essays research papers

The classic tragedy, as defined by Aristotle, has six major parts. These parts include a plot, characters, theme, melody, spectacle, and language. All stories, according to Aristotle must have a beginning, middle, and end, and must follow a dianoetic sequence according to these six elements.The plot is the series of events, or sequence in which the action of the play occurs. speckle must follow a cause and effect relationship, which follows a logical pattern. Characters are the people in the play, who have certain qualities that can be fit(p) by what they say, do and what others say about them. The theme of the play is the general feeling or statement made by the author that presents an observation or thought to the audience. Melody is the musical quality of the play, which includes a change of pitch by the voice, musical instruments , and also includes the high and low points of the play giving it an boilers suit melodic quality. Spectacle includes the visual elements of the pl ay, anything that is observed by sight. Often in modern movies and plays spectacle can be overdone, especially if a reason for the spectacle cannot be found. Language is the negotiation or speech that makes up the story, and is used by characters to present the play to the audience.Aristotle lays out a very specific definition of what a tragedy should include, and how for each one element should be presented. He tells us that the tragedy must include these six elements and that they must be laid out in a logical manner. Aristotle sets up the framework for a tragedy that is used with or without the playwrights knowledge for innumerable classical and modern plays.3.A eagle-eyed with giving us the six elements of a tragedy, Aristotle also gives us four parts that should be included in a tragic hero. Sophocles character Oedipus is considered to be the classic framework of a tragic hero. This is attributed to the fact that Oedipus clearly demonstrates all four of the characteristics t hat make up the tragic hero as defined by Aristotle. According to Aristotle, the tragic hero must be a good, as well as great person. What this means is that he must hold high moral goals and ideals for himself as well as being of high or noble stature in society. The tragic hero must have a character flaw, this could be some excess or... ...ey may not be the first comedy, nor is it the sole creation of Homer, however these things are attributed to it, because it was the first to be written down.Odysseus is considered to be the quintessential comic hero. Even though he is of great stature, he represents every man or the common man. He is sent on a long journey by Poseidon where he must use his cunning and shrewdness to make his way home. Odysseus must come up with a scheme in order to regain his homeland. Mistaken identicalness and deliberate deception are often used together and are used throughout this epic. Mistaken identity is when a character believes they are seeing someone, but it is not really that person, adding an element of dramatic irony. Deliberate deception is very similar, but the character is intending to bewray others and often uses a disguise. These elements are used several times by Athena, who comes to mortals in the form of people around them. Odysseus also disguises himself as a mendicant when he gets back to Ithaca. Several elements of the modern comedy can be found in the Odyssey, and because of its home coming, or happy ending it is considered the first comedy.

Essays --

Robert MiyoshiDr. ContiCPRL 110-0415 December 2013The Religious Journey of Malcolm XMalcolm X is widely known as one of the most influential figures in the exercise of Civil Rights. Although his views did change over time, he was always very transgressioncere about his beliefs and stood by them one-hundred percent. He was born Malcolm Little, to a Baptist lay speaker and a Grenada-born homemaker, Malcolms family had to be relocated several times because of constant death-threats toward his father. At the age of six, Earl, Malcolms father was killed in a streetcar accident that the family believed was the blend in of a white supremacist group called the Black Legion. At thirteen, Malcolms mother was institutionalized at a mental hospital, leaving her children to be separated into encourage homes. Although an excellent student in junior high school, Malcolm dropped out of school when a white teacher told him that his dream of practicing law was no realistic closing for a nigger. A fter a youth of petty crime and a young adulthood of larger infractions, Malcolm found himself in jail for thievery and breaking and entering. While serving his eight to ten year sentence at Charlestown State Prison, Malcolm began reading and furthering his education through reading. Also while in prison, Malcolms brother, Reginald visited him bearing news of a religion called the Nation of Islam. This belief system fit well with Malcolms views of white people that they are devils and that gruesome men and women are truly the superior race. While still in prison, Malcolm maintained correspondence with Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam. The X in Malcolms prepare began appearing in 1950 and replaced his surname Little because, his X replac... ...s as they saw that Nation as only a role-reversal of the white/black conflict in the United States. The Nation of Islam was labeled as hatemongers, black supremacists, racists, violence-seekers, segregationists, and a threa t to improved race relations. Malcolm X went even as far as to pock the civil rights movement and called Martin Luther King Jr. a chump and other civil rights leaders stooges of the white establishment. While in the height of his popularity among the Nation of Islam and as numbers of blacks in the United States joined the Nation, Malcolm had internal conflicts. These were because he had found out that Elijah Muhammad had had extramarital affairs with other members of the Nation of Islam a huge sin within the religion. Muhammad had had as many as six women that he had slept with and Malcolm X was deeply affected by his leaders actions.

Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Years ago in that respect was a traveler who came upon an old-fashioned ticker from which he would be in possession of to sum the handle in order to retrieve the water. Beside the pump there was a pitcher full of water, and on the pump there was a sign. The sign instructions were to prime the pump with the water in the pitcher, pump the water for use, and then refill the pitcher. The thirsty man looked at the pitcher, the pump and the sign. He thought to himself, If I pour this water down the pump, and it doesnt work, I will have no water to drink and it will be wasted. But, if I drink the water, I will be satisfied, but the next traveler will have nothing.We as graduates are like this traveler and we have decisions to make. We have the potential to be contributing members of society -- we are the doctors, nurses, farmers, servicemen and pastors of tomorrow. We brook use the water in the pitcher that is like the education and resources this country has given us, and we can prime the pump for others, providing them with the opportunities that we have already been given. We can give back to society with our...

Because I could not stop for Death, by Emily Dickinson Essay -- Emily D

Because I could not stop for wipeout, A Poem of Both Marriage and DeathWhen thinking of both conglutination and death, the word eternity comes to mind. Marriage is looked at as a symbol of eternal love, and death is looked at as a state of eternal rest. Also, Christians get by career after death as an eternal state. In Because I could not stop for Death, Emily Dickinson portrays death by describing an eternal marriage. On the substantial level, the speaker remembers a time where she was carried off and eloped with a man called Death and his partner in crime, Immortality. Not realizing that going with Death meant that she would have to leave this universe and live with him in his house forever, she shows herself as being immature at that time. As she leaves to go with Death the speaker states, We slowly droveHe knew no haste/And I had put away/My labor and my leisure too, /For his Civility--. In these lines, she shows how she must leave her household to work for her new husb and. On the way to Deaths house they passed the school, where Children strove/At Recessin the Ring. The fact that she mentions the kids fighting and playing at recess also shows how she must leave her life of leisure for a life of work. She must go work for her husband Death at his household. The next quatrain is when the speaker finally realizes that she is leaving this homo to nitty-gritty Death in his world. She states, We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain/We passed the Setting Sun/Or ratherHe passed Us. The next lines also show how she is leaving her world into another, colder environment. The speaker says The Dews drew quivering and chill/For only Gossamer, my Gown/My Tippetonly Tulle. The gown and scarf that she had worn f... ...hyme scheme follows an ABCB pattern. By that I mean that the s and last lines of every quatrain rhyme. This makes the poem flow well but not as fast as a poem with an ABAB rhyme scheme. Another technique I noticed was that Dickinson capi talizes the first letter of some important words in the lines to make the contributor emphasize them as he or she reads. For modeling in the line We passed the school, where Children strove/At Recessin the Ring/We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain/We passed the Setting Sun/Or ratherHe passed Us, the reader must emphasize the words that are capitalized to get the effect of a slower poem. This poem was a good example of what marrying Death would feel like. Since no one has really died and came back to tell us how it feels, Dickinson does a good job of showing death from the perspective of a dead person or immortal soul.

Because I could not stop for Death, by Emily Dickinson Essay -- Emily D

Because I could not stop for remainder, A Poem of both(prenominal) Marriage and destructionWhen thinking of both marriage and conclusion, the word eternity comes to mind. Marriage is looked at as a symbol of eternal love, and death is looked at as a state of eternal rest. Also, Christians consider life after death as an eternal state. In Because I could not stop for Death, Emily Dickinson portrays death by describing an eternal marriage. On the literal level, the speaker remembers a time where she was carried off and eloped with a man called Death and his partner in crime, Immortality. not realizing that going with Death meant that she would have to leave this world and live with him in his house forever, she shows herself as being immature at that time. As she leaves to go with Death the speaker states, We slowly droveHe knew no haste/And I had put away/My labor and my leisure too, /For his Civility--. In these lines, she shows how she must leave her family to work for her new husband. On the way to Deaths house they passed the school, where Children strove/At Recessin the Ring. The fact that she mentions the kids fighting and playing at recess also shows how she must leave her life of leisure for a life of work. She must go work for her husband Death at his household. The succeeding(prenominal) quatrain is when the speaker finally realizes that she is leaving this world to join Death in his world. She states, We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain/We passed the Setting sunniness/Or ratherHe passed Us. The next lines also show how she is leaving her world into another, colder environment. The speaker says The Dews drew quivering and chill/For only Gossamer, my Gown/My Tippetonly Tulle. The gown and scarf that she had faint f... ...hyme scheme follows an ABCB pattern. By that I mean that the second and last lines of every quatrain rhyme. This makes the poem flow well but not as fast as a poem with an ABAB rhyme scheme. Another technique I n oticed was that Dickinson capitalizes the first letter of some important words in the lines to make the subscriber emphasize them as he or she reads. For example in the line We passed the school, where Children strove/At Recessin the Ring/We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain/We passed the Setting Sun/Or ratherHe passed Us, the reader must emphasize the words that are capitalized to get the effect of a slower poem. This poem was a good example of what marrying Death would feel like. Since no one has really died and came back to tell us how it feels, Dickinson does a good job of showing death from the perspective of a dead person or immortal soul.

Performing Arts Essay

* Dance is a type of artistic production that generally involves movement of the body, often cadenced and to music. * Music is an art form whose medium is sound and silence. * Theatre (also theater in American English)1 is a collaborative form of fine art that uses full of life performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place. HistoryThe status exercise stratagem got its start in the 1960s in the United States. It was originally used to describe any live artistic event that include poets, musicians, film makers, etc. in addition to visual artists. If you werent around during the 1960s, you missed a vast array of Happenings, Events and Fluxus concerts, to name but a fewer of the descriptive words that were used. Its worth noting that, even though were referencing the 1960s here(predicate), there were earlier precedents for Performance artistic production. The live performances of the Dadaists, in particular, meshed poesy and the visual arts.The German Bauhaus, founded in 1919, included a theater workshop to explore relationships between space, sound and light. The Black Mountain College (founded in the United States by Bauhaus instructors exiled by the Nazi Party), continued incorporating theatrical studies with the visual arts a good 20 years before the 1960s Happenings happened. You may also have comprehend of Beatniks stereotypically cig artte-smoking, sunglasses and black-beret-wearing, poetry-spouting coffeehouse frequenters of the late 1950s and early 1960s. Though the term hadnt yet been coined, all of these were forerunners of Performance artistry. By 1970, Performance Art was a global term, and its definition a bit more specific.Performance Art meant that it was live, and it was art, not theater. Performance Art also meant that it was art that could not be bought, sold or traded as a commodity. Actually, the latter sentence is of major importance. Performance artists saw (and see) the movement as a means of taking their art directly to a public forum, thus completely eliminating the need for galleries, agents, brokers, tax accountants and any other aspect of capitalism. Its a sort of social scuttlebutt on the purity of art, you see. In addition to visual artists, poets, musicians and film makers, Performance Art in the 1970s now encompassed dance (song and dance, yes, but dont forget its not theater).Sometimes all of the above will be included in a performance piece (you just never know). Since Performance Art is live, no two performances are ever exactly the same. The 1970s also saw the heyday of Body Art (an counterbalance of Performance Art), which began in the 1960s. In Body Art, the artists own flesh (or the flesh of others) is the canvas. Body Art can range from covering volunteers with sober paint and then having them writhe on a canvas, to self-mutilation in front of an audience. (Body Art is often disturbing, as you may well imagine.) Additionall y, the 1970s saw the turn up of the autobiography being incorporated into a performance piece. This kind of story-telling is much more entertaining to most people than, say, seeing someone shot with a gun. (This actually happened, in a Body Art piece, in Venice, California, in 1971.)The autobiographical pieces are also a great platform for presenting ones views on social causes or issues. Since the beginning of the 1980s, Performance Art has increasingly incorporated technological media into pieces mainly because we have acquired exponential amounts of new technology. Recently, in fact, an 80s pop musician made the news for Performance Art pieces which use a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation as the crux of the performance. Where Performance Art goes from here is only a matter of combining technology and imagination. In other words, there are no foreseeable boundaries for Performance Art. Characteristics of Performing Arts Performance Art is live. Performance Art has no rules or g uidelines. It is art because the artist says it is art. It is experimental. Performance Art is not for sale. It may, however, sell admission tickets and film rights. Performance Art may be comprised of painting or sculpture (or both), dialogue, poetry, music, dance, opera, film footage, turned on television sets, laser lights, live animals and fire. Or all of the above. There are as many variables as there are artists. Performance Art is a legitimate artistic movement. It has longevity (some performance artists, in fact, have kinda large bodies of work) and is a degreed course of study in many post-secondary institutions. Dada, Futurism, the Bauhaus and the Black Mountain College all inspired and helped pave the way for Performance Art. Performance Art is closely related to Conceptual Art. Both Fluxus and Body Art are types of Performance Art. Performance Art may be entertaining, amusing, shocking or horrifying. No matter which adjective applies, it is meant to be memorable.

Analysis of Capitalism: A Love Story Essay

Michael Moore is the writer and director of the highly relevant documentary film, capitalist economy A Love Story, which is a film explicating on the financial crisis during 2007-2010 as well as the early(a) aspects such as the economic stimulus tract with the government committed in resolving the economic order of the United States and capitalism. The get along used in the documentary film is the dialectic approach. This type of approach was best utilized in the documentary wherein it uses two contradicting ideas that try to overpower each other.The film narrates and explains on the financial crisis as well as of other topics that are encompassed in the film. However, a devils advocate that serves as an adverse dilettante emerges to challenge or question the points raised by the other. Thus, this causes a healthy discussion and arouses the critical thinking of the audience. The documentary film although appeals to the general public however, the satirical sense of the documentar y focuses on the personalities in the government as well as the people mainly involved in the fruition of the ideas discussed in the documentary film.Overall, the documentary film is an eye-opener for the public that leaves room for the audience to critic and think of. The fallacy in the documentary film is the contradicting definition of capitalism expressed in the film. The creator, Michael Moore, expressed the Marxists definition of capitalism and that it needs the state, which is the very diametral of the real definition of capitalism. However, as the film shows how the government dips its control through the different courses of actions in attempt to resolve the problem.The arguments presented by Michael Moore are quite convincing, particularly through his dialectic approach that make the viewers critically think of the ideas presented and conduct their own deductions. Although the ideas are more abstract, the viewers make up of the open frame through their logical and criti cal thinking. Reference Moore, M. (Producer & Director). (2009). Capitalism A Love Story Motion Picture. USA.

Counterargument and Peaceful Species

IGCSE English as a First Language The Winchester School, Dubai Ishita Sharma 11G Argumentative writing Humans are a peaceful species at heart How out-of-the-way(prenominal) do you agree? Are humans a peaceful species at heart? Its a difficult task to pick a agnise side but many people dupe many opinions. There are various people who will say yes, humans are a peaceful species at heart but there are equally many people who would say no. later on all, it is a broad topic concerning an unpredictable species.One strong argument in support of this statement would be that if we werent a peaceful species how would we co-exist in much(prenominal) a large tribe in places like mega cities. Furthermore, criminals exist in a minority, how can that tip the scales and make us think that we are a violent species. Also, if we were so violent, why would we organize charities for people we dont even know? Why would donations exist? If we were not cooperative how would generations of scientis ts from all over the world discover things such as the atom, medicines etc.The counter-argument to that would be that we could just be cooperating for selfish causalitys or from fear of justice. There are many who are against this statement and have just as many points to justify their opinion. The most important point is that if we were so peaceful, why are there such things as wars? A minority of criminals, which is slowly rising, have the ability to kill innocent people, are they not humans too? Why is it that weapons such as guns which were invented to protect the innocent, are now being utilize to kill them? Terrorism and racism, in other words hatred, have consumed many defenceless beings.It is in human reputation in fact, to be aggressive. In our history, there have been massive blood baths for selfish reasons such as a quest for power and even natural resources. We are the reason that the Earth whitethorn suffer another Ice Age as we are destroying it on a daily basis. Co uld it not be that it is a fear of being reprimanded that makes us behave like civil people? After all, just 3000 years or so ago, we were barbarians who fought over land and food, and it seems we continue to do so. In conclusion, later on weighing up the arguments, I feel that I am against this statement. Humans are not peaceful as it is not even in our nature to be so.We are the cause of many epidemics and in the end we are the ones who destroy each other and everything around us whether it is for selfish purposes or justice. After all, there is no justification for violence, destruction and of course, selfishness. remark Introductory paragraph. Explains the fact that this is a complex topics towards which people have differing opinions. colour Reason 1. Argument for Comment Good example of connective adverb to develop reason 1. Comment Reason 2 Comment Bridge sentence, indicating that she is now moving on to the reasons against the topic Comment Argument sections. Reasons for. Comment Use of rhetorical questions to bring the reader over to her viewpoint. Comment Counter argument section. Reasons against. Comment Conclusion section of the essay. She states her opinion and reiterated the main reason why she doesnt believe humans are a peaceful species at heart. Overall, this essay scores an A grade. Ishita has followed the structure we discussed in class go off introduction, followed by argument, counterargument and a conclusion. She has points for and against the topic indicating that she has considered both sides of the argument and is aware of what the proponents and opponents of the statement believe.She has used a few rhetorical questions for emphasis always a nigh(a) strategy. Her conclusion was sound she states her opinion after presenting us with her main reason why she believes humans arent a peaceful species at heart. Her sentences are grammatically correct and she makes her points succinctly with a confident economy of words. She could score a higher grade if she focused a little more on elaborating her points for/against. exploitation a more varied vocabulary would add an extra dimension to her writing and drive home her points all the more effectively. Mr. Roberts

Clexane Essay

Clexane (enoxaparin) will be the topic for my teaching plan. In the plan it will aim to explain how and why enoxaprin is administered and why it is needed. Clexane injection contains the active constituent enoxaparin, which is a type of medicine called a low molecule weight heparin. It is a medicine that is used to treat inventory clots, or stop clots from forming inside the blood vessels, Enoxaparin is used to prevent and treat types of abnormal blood clots.It works by inactivating thrombin in the clotting process. This stops the formation of fibrin, the essential component of blood clots. The medicine is administered by injection under the skin (subcutaneous injection). Clexane is commonly used to prevent clotting after an operation such as a pelvis replacement, or certain heart conditions. The way clexane works is by preventing certain molecules in the blood called clotting factors from working. Clotting factors are needed to form a clot (e. g. n a cut or a scratch).However, bl ood clots can form inside the body and travel to areas such as the lungs or brain, where they can form a block. When this happens it is difficult for blood to circulate properly, the clot may also cause severe illness. Clexane will be given in accordance to the weight of the person. Subcutaneous Injection Technique. The patient should take the lying down position ready for the clexane injection to be administered, this is given by a deep subcutaneous injection.To avoid any loss of the drug which is administered in 30 and 40 mg pre-filled syringes, there is an air bubble that should not be expelled before the injection is given. Administration should be alternated between the left and right anterolateral and left and right posterolateral abdominal wall. The whole length of the needle should be introduced into a skin fold held between the thumb and forefinger the skin fold should be held throughout the injection. To minimise bruising, the injection site should not be rubbed on complet ion of the injection.

Developmental Reading Essay

What makes representing different from the other macro skills of communication? How does it relate to the other skills needed for communication? schooling is the process of looking at a series of write symbols and getting meaning from them. When we read, we use our eyes to sire written symbols (letters, punctuation marks and spaces) and we use our brain to convert them into pass haggling, sentences and paragraphs that tell something to us. education do-nothing be silent (in our head) or aloud (so that other race keep hear). Reading is a receptive skill through it, we receive development.But the difficult process of recital also requires the skill of speaking, so that we good deal pronounce the lyric poem that we read. In this gumption, indication is also a profitable skill in that we argon both receiving information and transmitting it (even if only to ourselves). Reading is the third of the four actors line skills, which be Listening Speaking Reading Writing In o ur association diction, edition is usually the third langu get along skill that we acquire. Do we need to read in order to speak side of meat? The short answer is no. Some native speakers cannot read or write only if they speak English fluently.Read more thanHow to write a reflective essay.On the other hand, course session is something that you can do on your own and that greatly broadens your vocabulary, thus helping you in speaking (and in perceive and indite). Reading is therefore a highly valuable skill and activity, and it is recommended that English directers try to read as much as realizable in English. A. The psychology of Reading The last 20 years get under angiotensin converting enzymes skin witnessed a revolution in denotation research. Cognitive psychologists, using high-speed computers to aid in the order of battle and analysis of data, have developed tools that have begun to answer questions that were previously thought unanswerable.These tools allo w for a chronometric, or moment-to-moment, analysis of the indication process. Foremost among them is the use of the disposition of eye movements to help reveal the underlying perceptual and cognitive processes of class period. Reading is a highly complex skill that is a prerequisite to success in our society. In a society such as ours, where so much information is communicated in written form, it is important to investigate this essential behaviour. In the quondam(prenominal) 15 years, a great deal has been learned about the reading process from research by cognitive psychologists.Reading as a complex skill is pretty much interpreted for granted by those who can do it. While those who can do it fluently take it for granted, its complexity is more seeming to those who are having trouble reading. Reading is sometimes difficult for children to learn and illiterate adults find learning to read agonizingly frustrating. The roots of cognitive psychology, the emergence of psycholo gy which examines internal psychogenic processes such as problem solving, memory and language can be traced to the experiment of Wundts laboratory in Leipzig in 1879.As a part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics. The core focal point of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning. Until the 1950s, behaviourism was the dominant school of thought in psychology.Between 1950 and 1970, the tide began to shift a lucrest behavioral psychology to focus on topics such as assistance, memory and problem-solving. Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this period generated considerable research on topics including processing models, cognitive research met hods and the first use of the term cognitive psychology. The term cognitive psychology was first consent in 1967 by American psychologist Ulric Neisser in his book Cognitive Psychology. accord to Neisser, cognition involves all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, rec all overed, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in eachthing a human being might possibly do that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. Today, we find many psychologists resideed in reading.Why has the change taken place? The primary reason appears to have been the failure of behaviourism to government note for language processing in many reasonable ship canal. The promise of behaviourism was always that if psychologists could pick up the laws of learning and behaviour is simple tasks, those laws could be popularized to more complex tasks like language processing. Some cognitive psychologists who study the product of reading would also want to argue with the bias towards pick uping the process of reading.To their way of thinking, what people remember from what they read maybe more important than how they go about the chore of reading. However, the response to such a point is that understanding the process by which some mental structure is created almost logically entails understanding that structure. In contrast, understanding what gets stored in memory may not reveal much about the processes that created the structure. Thus, understanding what is in memory as a result of reading discourse may not be unique to reading essentially the same structures may be created when people listen to discourse.It is not saying that understanding the product of reading and how remarkable skill essential be understood- quite apart from issues like general comp rehension skills and intelligence. B. The Meaning of Developmental Reading C. The Teaching of Reading Traditionally, the propose of learning to read in a language has been to have access to the literature written in that language. In language instruction, reading materials have traditionally been chosen from literary schoolbooks that represent higher forms of culture.This sexual climax assumes that students learn to read a language by poring over its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure, not by actually reading it. In this approach, lower level learners read only sentences and paragraphs generated by school text writers and instructors. The reading of authentic materials is limited to the works of great authors and reserved for upper level students who have developed the language skills needed to read them. The communicative approach to language pedagogy has given instructors a different understanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and the graphemes of texts that can be used in instruction.When the goal of instruction is communicative competence, everyday materials such as produce schedules, newspaper expressions, and travel and tourism Web sites establish appropriate classroom materials, because reading them is one way communicative competence is developed. Instruction in reading and reading practice thus become essential parts of language teaching at every level. What is reading? Reading about understands written texts. It is a complex activity that involves both perception and thought. Reading consists of two related processes word recognition and comprehension.Word recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written symbols correspond to ones spoken language. Comprehension is the process of making sense of words, sentences and connected text. Readers typically make use of background fellowship, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, experience with text and other strategies to help them understand written text. Much of what we know about reading is found on studies conducted in English and other alphabetic languages. The principles we list in this booklet are derived from them, still most also apply to non-alphabetic languages.They leave behind have to be modified to account for the peculiar(prenominal) language. Learning to read is an important educational goal. For both children and adults, the ability to read opens up new worlds and opport social unities. It enables us to gain new knowledge, enjoy literature, and do everyday things that are part and parcel of modern life, such as, reading the newspapers, job listings, instruction manuals, maps and so on. Most people learn to read in their native language without difficulty. Many, but not all, learn to read as children.Some children and adults need additional help. Yet others learn to read a second, third or additional language, with or without having learned to read in their first language. Reading instruction needs to take into account different types of learners and their needs. Research has shown that there is a great deal of transfer from learning to read in one language to learning to read in a second language. The principles outlined below are found on studies of children and adults, native speakers as well as those learning to read in a second or foreign language.They deal with different aspects of reading that are important in the planning and design of instruction and materials. The practical applications are based on general learning principles, as well as on research. Briefly verbalise, these learning principles start with the learner in mind. The type of learner will affect the type of methods and materials to be used. The stage setting of learning is also important. For instance, children and adults who are learning to read in a language different from their native language will also need to learn about the culture of the second or foreign language.Because texts are written with a specific audience in mind, cultural knowledge is present in texts and it is assumed that the ratifier is familiar with such knowledge. Both research and classroom practices support the use of a fit approach in instruction. Because reading depends on efficient word recognition and comprehension, instruction should develop reading skills and strategies, as well as spend a penny on learners knowledge through the use of authentic texts. 1. Theories of Reading Just like teaching methodology, reading theories have had their shifts and transitions.Starting from the traditional view which focused on the printed form of a text and moving to the cognitive view that enhanced the role of background knowledge in addition to what appeared on the printed page they at long last culminated in the metacognitive view which is now in vogue. It is based on the control and manipulation that a reader can have on the act of comprehending a text. a. The Traditional View match to Dole et al. (1991), in the traditional v iew of reading, novice readers acquire a set of hierarchically ordered sub-skills that sequentially build toward comprehension ability.Having mastered these skills, readers are viewed as experts who comprehend what they read. Readers are passive recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in the text and the reader has to reproduce meaning. According to Nunan (1991), reading in this view is basically a matter of decoding a series of written symbols into their aural equivalents in the quest for making sense of the text. He referred to this process as the bottom-up view of reading. McCarthy (1999) has called this view outside-inprocessing, referring to the idea that meaning exists in the printed page and is interpreted by the reader then taken in. This model of reading has almost always been underattack as being insufficient and defective for the main reason that it relies on the formal features of the language, mainly words and structure. Although it is possible to tak e on this rejection for the fact that there is over-reliance on structure in this view, it must be confessed that knowledge of linguistic features is also demand for comprehension to take place. To corrupt over-reliance on form in the traditional view of reading, the cognitive view was introduced. b. The Cognitive View.The top-down model is in direct opposition to the bottom-up model. According to Nunan (1991) and Dubin and Bycina (1991), the psycholinguistic model of reading and the top-down model are in exact concordance. slap-upman (1967 cited in Paran, 1996) presented reading as a psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, make new hypotheses, and so forth. Here, the reader rather than the text is at the core of the reading process. The schema theory of reading also fits within the cognitively based view of reading.Rumelhart (1977) has described schemata as building blocks of cognition which are used in the process of interpreting sensory data, in retrieving information from memory, in organising goals and subgoals, in allocating resources, and in guiding the flow of the processing system. Rumelhart (1977) has also utter that if our schemata are incomplete and do not provide an understanding of the incoming data from the text we will have problems processing and understanding the text. Cognitively based views of reading comprehension emphasize the interactive nature of reading and the constructive nature of comprehension.Dole et al. (1991) have evinced that, besides knowledge brought to bear on the reading process, a set of flexible, adaptable strategies are used to make sense of a text and to monitor ongoing understanding. c. The Metacognitive View According to Block (1992), there is now no more debate on whether reading is a bottom-up, language-based process or a top-down, knowledge-based process. It is also no more problematic to accept the influence of background knowle dge on both L1 and L2 readers. Research has gone even further to define the control readers execute on their ability to understand a text.This control, Block (1992) has referred to as metacognition. Metacognition involves thinking about what one is doing age reading. Klein et al. (1991) stated that strategic readers attempt the following while reading Identifying the purpose of the reading before reading Identifying the form or type of the text before reading Thinking about the general character and features of the form or type of the text. For instance, they try to locate a topic sentence and follow supporting exposit toward a conclusion Projecting the authors purpose for writing the text (while reading it), Choosing, scanning, or reading in detailMaking continuous predictions about what will occur next, based on information obtained earlier, prior(prenominal) knowledge, and conclusions obtained within the previous stages. Moreover, they attempt to form a summary of what was rea d. Carrying out the previous steps requires the reader to be able to classify sequence, establish whole-part relationships, match and contrast, determine cause-effect, summarise, hypothesise and predict, infer, and conclude. Tips and Guidelines for implementing a theory of reading which will help to develop the learners abilities Text characteristics.Pre-reading tips During-reading tips After-reading tips These tips can be viewed in terzetto consecutive stages before reading, during reading, and after reading. For instance, before starting to read a text it is natural to think of the purpose of reading the text. As an example of the during-reading techniques, re-reading for part comprehension can be mentioned. And filling out forms and charts can be referred to as an after-reading activity. These tasks and ideas can be used to enhance reading comprehension. Text characteristics.Good readers expect to understand what they are reading. Therefore, texts should contain words and gram matical structures familiar to the learners (Van Duzer, 1999). In texts where vocabulary is not familiar, teachers can introduce key vocabulary in pre-reading activities that focus on language sensory faculty, such as finding synonyms, antonyms, derivatives, or associated words (Hood et al. , 1996 cited in Van Duzer, 1999). The topics of texts chosen should be in accordance with the age range, interests, sex, and background culture of the students for whom they are intended.Pre-reading activities that introduce the text should encourage learners to use their background knowledge (Eskey, 1997 cited in Van Duzer, 1999). Class members can brainstorm ideas about the meaning of a title or an illustration and discuss what they know. Pre-reading tips Before the actual act of reading a text begins, some points should be regarded in order to make the process of reading more comprehensible. It is necessary to provide the necessary background information to the reader to facilitate comprehens ion.In addition, as stated by Lebauer (1998), pre-reading activities can lighten students cognitive burden while reading because prior discussions will have been incorporated. Teacher-directed pre-reading (Estes, 1999) Some key vocabulary and ideas in the text are explained. In this approach the teacher directly explains the information the students will need, including key concepts, important vocabulary, and appropriate conceptual framework. Interactive approach (Estes, 1999).In this method, the teacher leads a discussion in which he/she draws out the information students already have and interjects additional information deemed necessary to an understanding of the text to be read. Moreover, the teacher can make explicit links between prior knowledge and important information in the text. Purpose of reading It is also necessary for students to become aware of the purpose and goal for reading a certain piece of written material.At the beginning stages this can be done by the teacher , but as the reader becomes more mature this purpose, i. e.awareness-raising strategy, can be left to the readers. For instance, the students may be guided to ask themselves, Why am I reading this text? What do I want to know or do after reading? One of the most obvious, but unnoticed, points related to reading purpose is the consideration of the different types of reading skills. Skimming Reading rapidly for the main points Scanning Reading rapidly to find a specific piece of information Extensive reading Reading a bimestrial text, often for pleasure with emphasis on overall meaning Intensive reading Reading a short text for detailed information.The most frequently encountered reason as to why the four skills are all subsumed into one intensive reading is that students studying a foreign language feel the urge to look up every word they dont understand and to pinpoint on every structural point they see unfamiliar. To make students aware of the different types of reading, ask th em about the types of reading they do in their first language. The type of text The reader must become familiar with the fact that texts may take on different forms and hold certain pieces of information in different places.Thus, it is necessary to understand the layout of the material being read in order to focus more deeply on the parts that are more densely compacted with information. Even give attention to the year of publication of a text, if applicable, may aid the reader in presuppositions about the text as can glancing at the name of the author. Steinhofer (1996) stated that the tips mentioned in pre-reading will not take a very long time to carry out. The purpose is to overcome the common urge to start reading a text closely right away from the beginning.During-reading tips What follows are tips that encourage active reading. They consist of summarizing, reacting, questioning, arguing, evaluating, and placing a text within ones own experience. These processes may be the m ost complex to develop in a classroom setting, the reason being that in English reading classes most attention is often paid to dictionaries, the text, and the teacher. Interrupting this routine and encouraging students to dialogue with what they are reading without coming between them and the text presents a challenge to the EFL teacher.Duke and Pearson (2001) have stated that vertical readers are active readers. According to Ur (1996), Vaezi (2001), and Fitzgerald (1995), they use the following strategies. Making predictions The readers should be taught to be on the watch to predict what is going to happen next in the text to be able to integrate and combine what has come with what is to come. Making selections Readers who are more proficient read selectively, continually making decisions about their reading. integrate prior knowledge The schemata that have been activated in the pre-reading section should be called upon to facilitate comprehension. Skipping insignificant parts A good reader will turn on significant pieces of information while skipping insignificant pieces. Re-reading Readers should be encouraged to become sensitive to the effect of reading on their comprehension. Making use of context or guessing Readers should not be encouraged to define and understand every single unknown word in a text. Instead they should learn to make use of context to guess the meaning of unknown words.Breaking words into their component parts To keep the process of comprehension ongoing, efficient readers wear off words into their affixes or bases. These parts can help readers guess the meaning of a word. Reading in chunks To ensure reading speed, readers should get used to reading groups of words together. This act will also enhance comprehension by focusing on groups of meaning-conveying symbols simultaneously. Pausing Good readers will pause at certain places while reading a text to absorb and internalize the material being read and sort out information.Paraphra sing While reading texts it may be necessary to paraphrase and interpret texts subvocally in order to verify what was comprehended. Monitoring Good readers monitor their understanding to evaluate whether the text, or the reading of it, is meeting their goals. After-reading tips It is necessary to state that post-reading activities almost always depend on the purpose of reading and the type of information extracted from the text. Barnett (1988) has stated that post-reading exercises first check students comprehension and then lead students to a deeper analysis of the text.In the real world the purpose of reading is not to memorize an authors point of view or to summarize text content, but rather to see into another mind, or to mesh new information into what one already knows. Group discussion will help students focus on information they did not comprehend, or did comprehend correctly. Accordingly, attention will be focused on processes that lead to comprehension or miscomprehension. Generally speaking, post-reading can take the form of various activities as presented below Discussing the text Written/ oral examination Summarizing Written/Oral Making questions Written/Oral.Answering questions Written/Oral Filling in forms and charts Writing reading logs Completing a text Listening to or reading other related materials Role-playing 2. The Reading Purpose Reading is an activity with a purpose. A soulfulness may read in order to gain information or verify existing knowledge, or in order to critique a writers ideas or writing style. A person may also read for enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of the language being read. The purpose(s) for reading guide the readers selection of texts. The purpose for reading also determines the appropriate approach to reading comprehension.A person who needs to know whether she can afford to eat at a particular restaurant needs to comprehend the pricing information provided on the menu, but does not need to recognize the name of e very appetizer listed. A person reading poetry for enjoyment needs to recognize the words the poet uses and the ways they are put together, but does not need to identify main idea and supporting details. However, a person using a scientific article to support an opinion needs to know the vocabulary that is used, understand the facts and cause-effect sequences that are presented, and recognize ideas that are presented as hypotheses and givens.Reading research shows that good readers Read extensively Integrate information in the text with existing knowledge Have a flexible reading style, depending on what they are reading Are cause Rely on different skills interacting perceptual processing, phonemic processing, recall Read for a purpose reading serves a function Reading as a Process Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. The text presents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that encode meaning. The reader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaning is.Reader knowledge, skills, and strategies include Linguistic competence the ability to recognize the elements of the writing system knowledge of vocabulary knowledge of how words are structured into sentences Discourse competence knowledge of discourse markers and how they connect parts of the text to one another Sociolinguistic competence knowledge about different types of texts and their usual structure and content strategic competence the ability to use top-down strategies, as well as knowledge of the language (a bottom-up strategy).The purpose(s) for reading and the type of text determine the specific knowledge, skills, and strategies that readers need to apply to achieve comprehension. Reading comprehension is thus much more than decoding. Reading comprehension results when the reader knows which skills and strategies are appropriate for the type of text, and understands how to apply them to accomplish the rea ding purpose. Developmentally Appropriate Materials for Preschool and Kindergarten Children (Ages 3-6).Materials for preschoolers and kindergarteners should support their developing social skills and interest in adult roles, growing imaginations, increasing motor skills, and rapidly expanding vocabularies. try to the table below for examples of developmentally appropriate materials for preschool and kindergarten children. Type of Material Appropriate Materials Examples Skill/concept Books/records Picture books, simple and repetitive stories and rhymes, animal stories, pop-up books, simple information books, wide variety of practice of medicineal recordings.Games Socially interactive games with adults, such as What If matching and lotto games based on colors and designates, such as picture bingo or dominoes games of chance with a few pieces that require no reading, such as Chutes and Ladders flannel board with pictures, letters, and storybook characters Gross motor energetic pla y Push and pull buncos ride-on toys balls of all kinds indoor slide and climber rocking boat Outdoor Climbers, rope ladders, balls of all sizes old tires, sand and water materials manipulative Fine motor.Dressing frames toys to put together and take apart cookie cutters, stamp and printing materials, finger paint, modeling dough, small objects to sort and classify cliff stringing with long, thin string pegs and small pegs colored cubes, table blocks, magnetic board/letters/ turnings and shapes perception boards and mosaics Puzzles and form boards Fit-in or framed puzzles (for 3-year-olds from 4-20 pieces, for 4-year-olds from 15-30 pieces, for 5-year-olds from 15-50 pieces) large, simple jigsaws number/letter/clock puzzles Investigative.Toys, globe flashlight, magnets, lock boxes, weather forecasting equipment, scales, balances, stethoscopes Construction Building sets Small and large unit blocks large hollow blocks from age 4, employment plastic blocks with pieces of all sizes Ca rpentry Workbench, hammer, preschool nails, saw, sandpaper, pounding benches, safety goggles Self-expressive Dolls and soft toys Realistic dolls and accessories play settings and play people (e. g. , farm, hospital) Dramatic play Dress-up clothes, realistic tools, toy camera, foretell, household furniture.Sensory Tactile boxes auditory and musical materials such as smelling and sound boxes cooking experiences Art/music All rhythm instruments, music boxes large crayons, paint, paste, glue, chalkboard and chalk, sewing kits, collage materials, markers, modeling dough, blunt scissors Natural and everyday Sand and water Sandbox tools, bubbles, water toys Old clocks, radios, cameras, telephones telephone books mirrors doctor kits typewriter magazines fabric scraps computer cash register and receipts measuring cups and muffin tins 3.Basic Reading Skillsa. Skimming is used to quickly profit the most important information, or gist. Run your eyes over the text, noting important informatio n. Use skimming to quickly get up to speed on a current business situation. Its not essential to understand each word when skimming. Examples of Skimming The Newspaper (quickly to get the general news of the day) Magazines (quickly to discover which articles you would like to read in more detail) Business and Travel Brochures (quickly to get informed) b. Scanning- is used to find a particular piece of information.Run your eyes over the text looking for the specific piece of information you need. Use scanning on schedules, meeting plans, etc. in order to find the specific details you require. If you see words or phrases that you dont understand, dont worry when scanning. Examples of Scanning The Whats on TV section of your newspaper. A train / airplane schedule A conference guide c. Extensive reading- is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject and includes reading longer texts for pleasure, as well as business books.Use extensive reading skills to improve your general kno wledge of business procedures. Do not worry if you understand each word. Examples of Extensive Reading The latest marketing strategy book A novel you read before going to bed Magazine articles that interest you d. Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract specific information. It includes very close accurate reading for detail. Use intensive reading skills to grasp the details of a specific situation. In this case, it is important that you understand each word, number or fact.Examples of Intensive Reading A bookkeeping cut through An insurance claim A contract Essential Components of Reading Reading is an astoundingly complex cognitive process. While we often think of reading as one singular act, our brains are actually engaging in a number of tasks simultaneously each time we sit down with a book. There are five aspects to the process of reading phonics, phonemic awareness, vocabulary, reading comprehension and fluency. These five aspects work together to cre ate the reading experience.As children learn to read they must develop skills in all five of these areas in order to become successful readers. 1. Phonics Phonics is the connection between sounds and letter symbols. It is also the combination of these sound-symbol connections to create words. Without phonics, words are simply a bunch of squiggles and lines on a page. If you think about it, letters are arbitrary. There is nothing innately bed-like about the written word bed. It is simply the collection of letters and corresponding sounds that we agree constitute the word bed.Learning to make that connection between the individual sounds that each letter represents and then putting those together is essential to understanding what that funny squiggle means. There are a number of ways that phonics can be taught because there is a variety of ways to apply this aspect when reading. Each approach allows the reader to use phonics to read and learn new words in a different way. Synthetic ph onics builds words from the ground up. In this approach readers are taught to first connect letters to their corresponding phonemes (sound units) and then to sound those together to create a word.Analytic phonics, on the other hand, approaches words from the top down. A word is identified as a whole unit and then its letter-sound connections are parsed out. Analogy phonics uses familiar parts of words to discover new words. Finally, phonics through spelling focuses on connecting sounds with letters in writing. All of these approaches can be taught and used independently or in combination to help young readers learn to identify new words. 2. Phonemic Awareness Phonemic awareness is closely related to phonics because both involve the connection between sounds and words.

Nationalism With A Purpose Essay

The First and the Second World War changed the outlook of the world. Empires ceased to exist. A un white plagued concept of nations came into being. openingonies of European countries started to get their independence from foreign rule in quick succession.. Boundaries and territories became es moveial in deciding where a nation started and ended. Nations have been crossing with each other everyplace terminus ad quem lines since history has been recorded however frontiers became exceptionally important with the end of the Second World War and the emergence of the Third world. One place where boundary lines and land was of great importance was in the Indian subcontinent, which had been under the control of the British Empire from 1858 to 1947. The Indian sub-continent was to be decolonized and partitioned into two countries. A Muslim dominated, Pakistan and a Hindoo dominated, India. Surprisingly, it was the first time that nations were being partitioned on the basis of relig ion. The partition led to many problems between the two countries. One such issue was the conflict over the state of Kashmir. The dispute over Kashmir has dogged relations between India and Pakistan since the states were created by the partition of British India in 1947.The two countries have fought three wars (in 1947-48, 1965 and 1999). They have besides been on the verge of resorting to nu clean-living weapons over this issue. The fight over Kashmir is an unending conflict. The biggest reason for its insolvability is that leading of both nations have used unearthly patriotism to absolve the wars and the struggle to incorporate Kashmir while masking the underlying motive of crystalizeing frugal and strategic payoffs from it. Not both countries moreover Pakistan The conflict of Kashmir puke be traced dressing to the time of partition and to the events that occurred during the time period when British controlled India was to be divided up on religious lines. The state ha d been under the rule of the Sikh empire and the British had managed to exert their influence on the Singh rulers of the time. The State of Kashmir was important to the British because it worked as buffer zone to prevent invasion into India by Russia, China and Afghanistan. Therefore, as the British desired the Sinkh monarchy rulers were generally puppets of the Britishprecisely following their orders in word and action. A close alliance was haveed between the British and the rulers of Kashmir in this way.However, the partition of the sub-continent brought the in construct tensionsamongst the Muslims and Hindus over the state of Kashmir to the forefront.. Muslims under the Muslim unify and Hindus under the Congress had been constantly endeavoring for more rights and representation from the British throughout the 1880s and 90s. The British finally checkd to give India its independence, precisely the Muslims and Hindus felt entitled to separate states wee-wee on a religious divi de which according to both was too great for both of them to exist harmoniously. Muslims felt entrapped as a minority in a Hindu dominant country. Through the efforts of Jinnah, the leader of the Muslim League and Nehru, the leader of the congress, a plan was proposed to separate the two countries. It was the first time in history that such a partition was taking place on the basis of religion. After the failure of the Cabinet Mission Plan for a unified India on 1946, the British government announced its definite intention to bourgeon necessary steps to effect the transference of power to responsible Indian hands by a date non later than June 1948. Thus, the British sent their last viceroy, Lord Mountbatten to oversee the partition in of the around volatile regions of the world.The general plan of the partition was that the huge beas of Punjab, Bengal and Assam were to be divided according to the majority of the religion in the area. Therefore, the Muslim majority areas ceded t o Pakistan and the Hindu majority areas to India. There were a number of princely states that were given the option to cede to India or Pakistan based on a vote to come to into account the wishes of the local population. Kashmir was a Muslim majority state with a Hindu ruler. The ruler Hari Singh was confused as to where he should cede. Meanwhile, Sir Cyrill Radcliffe was sent by the British government to irritate an exact boundary line to divide the Punjab province now famously referred to as the Radcliffe stage Boundary Commission. According to the commission, the three Muslim majority tehsils of the Gurdaspur district were given to India. This went against the laws, which divided the rest of India. Nonetheless, Hari Singhs hesitation to cede to either nation was to be the reason for his own tragedy. (Was Kashmir part of one of the tehsils given to India by Radcliffe? If not the last two sentences make, no sense.)With nation building and the formation of a new states came the c oncept of nationalism. Nationalism involves the concept of an imagined community by a particular community. It includes certain people in this imagined community and excludes others. India was portioned on the basis ofreligion so they had envisioned what areas came into their respective imagined communities. Unfortunately, they both envisioned Kashmir to be a part of their newly founded nations. As religious nationalism was the basis of the partition of India, it also became a veil to mask the real motives for the fight for Kashmir between the newly independent states of Pakistan and India. Kashmir had a Muslim majority population of 3,101,247 (77.1 %). The first war over Kashmir was fought in 1947 when there was a Poonch uprising in the state against Hari Singh. Pakistan sent in forces to secure the area out of fear that Kashmir would end up going to India. However, against anterior plans the Pakistani troops ended up trying to invade Srinagar, Kahsmirs capital.Hari Singh was afra id and do a deal to cede to India if India helped fight Pakistan. The fact that Pakistan and India fight a war over Kashmir a few months after they came into existence provided they had very limited supplies and could hardly stand up on their own as independent countries speaks volumes of the states religious and hidden economic importance. It is pertinent to look back at what Jinnah said to the Kashmiri leadership during the 1947 partition highlighting the decision of Hari Singh. In his speech, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, first governor general of Pakistan said, I hope that the Maharaja and the Prime government minister of religion of Kashmir will realize the fast changing circumstances and wisdom demands that the feelings of the Muslims who form eighty percent of the population should not be ignored, much less hurt. Therefore, it you observe closely, Jinnah made the issue of Kashmir, an issue to do with Islam and Muslims. The rhetoric he states in his speech is for a plea to protect the wishes of the Muslims in Kashmir.The civilians in the newly founded Pakistan would also think in the same way to the highest degree the issue of Kashmir as having to do with Islam and their duty to help their Muslim brothers. The tact of religious nationalism is used as a mask. The very first president of Pakistan used this to make a occupy over Kashmir. Therefore, the claim for Kashmir to be part of Pakistan as a religious mission was indeed a pertinent ploy to cover the support of civilians of the state. The second war was fought over Kashmir in 1965. After the first war, the British had decided on a plebiscite to take place in Kashmir to decide its fate. India and Pakistan had both initially agreed on this but India went back on its word and occupied Kashmiri territory. Therefore, the 1965 war was fought on the same platform. At the time, hot seat Ayub Khan was in power in Pakistan, a military dictator and the first of many that the country would see in its short history. The collection of the speeches of the pass and statesman, organized by Rais Ahmd Jafri shows how he too follows a similar agenda some religious nationalism during his tenure as leader of Pakistan.The first is a speech on 25th August 1961 in Karachi at the Pakistan Institute of International Affairs. He states The difference between Pakistan and other Muslim countries is that the upsurge in these other Muslim countries is racial, linguistic, territorial, anti-imperialist, anti-colonial and very little religious. Therefore, we can see that like Jinnah, Ayub Khan preached about the importance of Islam in Pakistan. He tried to inform Pakistanis about the significance of religion in the formation of their state of Pakistan and their role as falg bearers of Islam in the region. In his first broadcast on 1st November 1963, Ayub Khan made another speech in regards to the situation in Kashmir. He stated, The government and the people of India know that they have no right to the state of Ja mmu and Kashmir. The world at large knows it. So the proposed integration would only heighten Indias guilt. It would correspondingly heighten our resolve to free our brethren from their bondage. Those who transgress deceive nobody except themselves. flavour at this excerpt from this speech, we can see how Ayub Khan was preparing the civilians for another war with India.He claimed Pakistans right for Kashmir on the basis of Islam decisively labeling the residents of Kashmir as brothers of the citizens of Pakistan. Kashmir is a Muslim populated area and thus it is Pakistans responsibility to free their brethren. Ayub Khan is victimization religion as a rhetorical force here. With Islam as a mechanism, Pakistanis would believe that they it is their responsibility to God to help other Muslim brothers and support the upcoming war and struggle for Kashmir. Therefore, it is vial to see how Pakistani leaders over time have used religion as a basis to motivate Pakistanis to think that the f reedom of Kashmir is their responsibility and thae oppressors of their Kashmiri brothers, enemies of Pakistan and Muslims in general. Similarly, India used patriotic mechanisms and rhetoric to convince civilians and soldiery officers to fight and support the war, while hiding the real economic intentions in regards to Kashmir.The 1965 War Story- Defense Minister Y.B Chavans Diary of India-Pakistan War gives an insight into how the samesense of nationalism had influenced Indians during the crisis. On September 20, 1965 Chavan writes in his diary, It was not an accident but was shot fown by Pakistani fighter planes near Bhuj. It was surprising that the plane went off the track nearly by 50 miles between Ahmedabad-Mithapur. I hate these Pakistanis. Therefore, this quote shows a different perspective. It shows the opinion and the thoughts of whatsoeverone who was at service to India. Hate is a strong word to use, but yet Chavan casually writes it down in his diary. Therefore, natio nalistic forces help create animosity. They declare the other side to be the enemy. In this case, Pakistanis are bad and they should be hated. This mentality about Pakistanis being the enemy helped the generals and army officers to wage war against Pakistan. It was a way for them to support and fight the war. It is important to see how leaders of the state had brainwashed army officers into listening to the states orders. Most generals and minister did not even know what they were fighting for or what they hoped to achieve.They were simply following orders with hate for the Pakistanis due to the differences that the state had created for them. (This bolded part is very vague and not clear at all. Diaries are view to be casual, its his personal diary not a novel. In a state of war the other side is suppose to be the enemy. Maybe you should highlight how the indian government tried to increase nationalism maybe by using religion or the atrocities of the Muslims or some other reason t o motivate its forces.) The diary of an Indian war captive in Pakistan shows another similar example of this nationalism effect on the Indians. LT Col SS Chowdhary writes in his personal narrative called, Prisoner of War, about his experiences as a captive on enemy soil in the 1965 war. This source is important because it shows the views about Pakistan from an Indian colonel. Unlike the former presidents of Pakistan, Ayub Khan and Muhammad Jinnah, the colonel is not promoting the nationalism that leads to hatred and animosity but he is actually on the side that is getting influenced. He talks about the hatred felt during sport matches between India and Pakistan.He says, They would lose to any country but India. So much is their hatred for India. Therefore, we can see the extent to which people on both sides hate each other. The whole concept of a them and and us is created by nationalism and is the creation of leaders of state to justify war. He goes on to talk about his experience in the reflection statewhen he says, A Muslim is generally considered to be cruel and unkindly. Therefore, his experience as a prisoner of war changes his perspective about Muslims. It is important to realize that Hindus and Muslims grow up considering the other to be cruel, unkind and generally bad. It is the leaders of the state that carry out this propaganda to meet their own aims and steer the sentiment of the general public in their way. (you should elaborate in this paragraph what created that hate of them and us between the two states, thats hat you thesis is about.) Going through examples of both countries, it is visible that religion was the basis of the partition of the subcontinent.However, religious nationalism was used by the states to brainwash the public into hating their respective neighbor. Both India and Pakistan have used religious differences to create hostility within their populations towards the other. This is the clever tactic that was used and is still bei ng used by both countries in order to hide the real reason for fighting over Kashmir. The real purport is that India and Pakistan both seek to gain economically and strategically from taking over Kashmir. This can easily be seen from the fact that Pakistan lost East Pakistan (Bangladesh). Bangladesh got its independence from Pakistan in 1971. Bangladesh is a Muslim populated area and was a part of Pakistan. The injustices Pakistan inflicted on Bangladesh furthers the case that Pakistan does not care about Muslim brothers. Like other countries, it only seeks to gain economic and strategic advances. Similarly, India also seeks to gain immensely from taking over Kashmir and creates a faade about her sovereign and nationalistic right to take over it. After this part the essay is goodKashmir is much more than disputed territory. It is a haven for untapped natural resources and land. Geographically, it can be divided into the two states of Jammu and Kashmir encompassing 84,471 square mil es. It is the largest state in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. An name about the economic background of Kashmir by S.M Hudda shows us the economic potential of Kashmir and the benefits that both countries could gain if they took over it. Unlike other areas of the world, Kashmir is untapped. It has immense natural resources that have not been functioned. Even the mineral resources of the country are largely unexplored except in Riazi and Jammu. Therefore, both Pakistan and India are developing countries and can use Kashmir to tapthese mineral and natural resources. The article further states that Kashmir has an abundance of water resources. Hydel power could be generated using these water resources. India and Pakistan have extreme power shortages throughout the country and are in need for more power resources. This could solve their problem of power shortages.Therefore, this article provides evidence as to how Kashmir is a haven of untapped natural resources and one of the major re asons that both states are fighting over it. Kashmir also has a preposterous strategic location. This strategic location could help both countries militarily and economically. Kashmir borders Russia, China, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Thus Kashmir works as a valuable window on these other regional powers. If Pakistan gets Kashmir, it can gain a military advantage over India. It will have a direct route to India and can attack it easily in the advent of war. India would have a similar advantage. The country, which gets a hold of Kashmir, can protect its borders this way. Thus, the national security of Kashmir is vital for the security of both India and Pakistan. Kashmir also maintains a key position as a trading route. It provides a pass to traffic with Central Asia. India and Pakistan could gain economically from the exports and imports from this trading route. Secondly, another strategic advantage that India and Pakistan both seek to gain is in regards to the water resources .Water is a vital resource for any countrys self-reliance. Shockingly, the rivers Sindh, Ravi, Jhelum and Chena that flow through India and Pakistan develop in Kashmir. These rivers are important to support the economy of both Pakistan and India. Both countries are agro-based and dominantly depend on agriculture to support them. Therefore, these rivers prove as a lifeline to both countries. Even so, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the first president of Pakistan has been quoted saying that Kashmir is the jugular vein of Pakistan for this very reason. Both countries also fear that if the other gets hold of Kashmir, hence they will cut the water supply to the other. Therefore, it is visible that Kashmir has great strategic and economic value to both Pakistan and India. Despite these advantages, India and Pakistan also exploit Kashmir to their benefit. This also proves the claim that both countries have never been interested in protecting the rights of the people and the only interest has been an economic one.An article in the Economic and Political weekly explores the development of Kashmir by India. It states that India seeks togain greatly from Kashmir. The article states, Furthermore, though couched in terms of security, this is not a question of security. The real question is that of expansion, security is a way of justifying that expansion in terms that appeal to national sentiments. What is at stake is not a genuine security interest, but the interest of being able to exploit markets and being able to dispose of labor surplus. Therefore, we can see that India has been exploiting markets in Kashmir for a long time and this is why she wants complete control. another(prenominal) example of such exploitation is that India shows that it supports and gives aid to Kashmir but actually this leads to more financial burden. The budget deficit of Kashmir was 370 crore rupees and 300 crore were from interest payments from India. Also, India has built a avenue linking Jammu and Srinigar.This highway helps India gain security but it also helps them in taking out Kashmirs timber and other primary products out. Ironically, the money for the highway comes forthwith from Kashmirs budget. India is only looking out for its own selfish interest and is completely exploiting its Kashmiri colony. This is why it wants to take complete control of Kashmir. Commercial trade is also another way that India is exploiting Kashmir. India has managed to exert influence and developed free trade with Kashmir. Kashmir has two natural resources forests and water. There has been extensive deforestation and the wood has been taken out and used for Indian railways. The hydroelectric power plant contracts also go almost entirely to Indian companies. Therefore, India is not capitally investing in Kashmir but is only investing in power generations and transmission so she can better exploit Kashmirs natural resources. Pakistan has also followed a similar exploitation method in its colony of Kashmir. It proves the argument that religious nationalism is only part of propaganda that state leaders have made and continue to make to change integrity their claim over Kashmir.The people of Azad Kashmir, Pakistans colony have sent hundreds of requests to the Pakistani High Commissioner in London to grant them export licenses so they could establish small scale industries in Kashmir. All these requests were not accepted, while Pakistani nationals were given export licenses for machinery. Another example of such exploitation is that there are eight thousand Kashmiri workers living in Britain who send remittances of about a million pounds each month to their families in Kashmir. Ironically, Pakistanis also own most of the banks inKashmir. Hence, the Pakistani government earns a huge amount of profits through foreign exchange and invests the money into Pakistan. Like India, Pakistan also exploits the forest obtain of Kashmir. The forest contracts are given to Pakistani nationals who offer much less than Kashmiri nationals. Surprisingly, most of the contracts are given to members of the military service.Pakistan has also prevented the workers to form a union in Kashmir while it has been allowed in Pakistan. Therefore, we can see that Azad Kashmir is a colony like Bangladesh was. Pakistan does not care about her Muslim brethren. That is the charade they use in order to get complete control of Kashmir so they can gain full economic advantage through exploitation. However, we have seen how nationalism is a newly invented ideology and how powerful it is. States use it to brainwash the public and members of the civil and military sector to hide real intentions. In the case of Kashmir, the issue has not ended since the partition in 1947. The biggest reason for this unending conflict is that both states have used religious nationalism to show the other as the enemy.In the case of Pakistan, both former presidents have used Islam as a rhetorical device to c onvince civilians. In the case of India, the effect of this religious nationalism can be seen on the military officers who are willing to die for the sake of defeating the enemy. However, it is used to hide the underlying objective of both countries- gain economic and strategic advantages. Therefore, whoever seeks to gain Kashmir gains immensely from exploiting its natural resources, market and suppressed laborers? The issue could have been resolved if religious nationalism was put to the side and an economic deal was made between both India and Pakistan. Nonetheless, it shows how state leaders can use nationalism as a tool to herd people to their cause and exploit them in this way.

I.B. Comparative Politics and Economics (SL) Essay

In this article, The Economist talks about how the set for a pose of oil has duskped below the fifty dollar mark, resting at $47.36. Though many people would be happy with this, it talks about how this could be cause for appall as a possible indicator for a worsening economy. The main economic concept described in the article would have to be outgo because it ties in with many changes that will occur as an effect of oil prices going depressed.Consumption is basically what it says it is the total spending by consumers of domestic goods and service. some other concept described in this article is that of aggregate demand, mainly because utilisation is bound to it. Aggregate demand is the total spending on goods or services in a period of time at a given price. Lastly, Monetary Policy is touched on in this article since there is a deflation in prices those who control monetary policy cut interest rates.* Consumption Because of the drop in oil and also economists predictions that it will drop even lower, we can probably guess that consumers will save to a greater extent money when they buy gas. With this extra money, incomes change and go up. Income is one of the main factors of consumption because, when it rises, people have more money to spend on other things, which increases aggregate demand. Consumer confidence also plays a role in consumption and in particular in this case because, if consumers believe that gas prices will become lower, then they will have a greater chance or spending more on various goods and services.* Aggregate Demand Changes in any of the four determinants of aggregate demand will shift it, making it lower or high depending on which way the determinant shifts. In this case, a graph of aggregate demand would be shifting to the left because price levels are going down as the cost of oil is decreasing.* Monetary Policy Though not discussed to a deep extent in the article, it does say that in response to the price for a barrel of oil dropping those setting monetary policy have had no hesitation in cutting interest rates dramatically. Theyre probably cutting them do to fears of deflation which would create a greater unemployment due to a decrease in profit. Cutting interest rates would decrease the bonus to save because the cost of borrowing would be lower, this would also increase investment.In this graph you can see that aggregate demand will shift from a change in price level. So, if we make the price level oil and it goes down, then we have our demand for it go up and the aggregate demand military control will shift to the left (AD2). If we increase the price for oil, the exact opposite will occur and the line will shift to the right (AD3). This all comes spur to monetary policy and the article talking about people cutting interest so that it could build up consumer confidence in spending.In ground of completeness of this article, I value The Economist does an overall decent job at explaining what was go ing on and what could come of it but I dont think it really touched on what we should do (or what we are doing) as a country to prevent a shortage of oil. I think the article does a good job of assuming that, although we are pursuing renewable energy, oil will be with us for a while longer and that we need to tar up the prices to reduce demand so that we dont have the shortage too soon. In the short term, the lowering of oil prices is immensely expert because it increases the amount of money consumers have to spend on goods and services, and it also increases consumer confidence, making them want to get loans and mortgages.

The Jamestown Fiasco Commentary

According to Edmund S. Morgan, the majority of problems faced by the first settlers who arrived to Jamestown in the grade 1607 were caused by the poor organization within the colony. For example, the settlers were unwilling to grow their own food supply and open up a reliable foundation for future settlers. Despite the abundance of game to hunt, and perfect weather conditions to harvest home crops, the settlers would instead dig up corpses, and in one case a man killed his wife and consume her in order to survive the starvation.By the year 1610, only 60 settlers had survived. Morgans portrayed the settlers as lazy, who were starving by mere choice. Another problem faced by the first settlers of Jamestown was, according to derriere Smith, one of the colony leaders, that there were too many men in the grain fields, yet really few of them were working to crop the field. Morgan also points out that since the settlers felt superior to the Indians, they believed it was not their job to harvest the crops for the colonies.Instead, they would spend their time raiding Indian territory, and burning down crops that could have been used to feed the starving settlers back in the colony. Their own governor once sent one of the settlers, George Percy, to destroy the town of the Paspaheghs where he believed Powhaten kept his runaway English man. It is obvious then, and as stated by Morgan, that the reason Jamestown failed to develop as it was expected was caused mainly by the unwillingness of the settlers to work, and to create an organized and stable order for their community.

Osmosis Reprot

OSMOSIS REPROT Introduction Osmosis is the result of airing across a semi-permeable membrane. If two results of contrary concentration are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, wherefore the solvent will tend to diffuse across the membrane from the less toilsome to the more concentrated solution. This process is called osmosis. This leads me to my question, how do distinguishable concentrations of sucrose affect the rate of osmosis? My hypothesis is if sucrose concentration increases in the selectively-permeable baggies then, the rate of osmosis will also increase.Materials and Method To conduct this experiment the materials needed are 3 different concentrated sucrose solutions, . 25 M, . 5 M, . 75 M. It will also require 4 beakers containing water system from the sink. 4 pieces of dialysis tubing along with 8 pieces of range. An electronic balance to weigh the solutions. Makers and labeling type to label the different solutions. Paper towels needed to dry off any excess wat er. This experiment should be conducted in a group of 3. Step 1.Fill four separate beakers three-fourths full with deionized water. Step 2. Label the beakers to cite each(prenominal) different sucrose concentration later on. Step 3. Fill up the four baggies each with a different sucrose concentration, and the final bag fill up with deionized water. Step 4. Tie the bags with the string and rinse off each bag with di-H20 to wash away any spilt sugar. Step 5. Weigh the solutions to adjudicate the bag saddle and then wait 35 minutes and repeat the weigh-in to depart the final load unit of the solutions. ResultsThe sign weight gain was figured by weighing the baggie with the Sucrose solution before putt it into the beaker with the deionized water, and after the baggies were in the beaker of deionized water for 35 minutes, then the baggies were weighed again. After the initial weight and the final weight was done, the final weight was divided by the initial weight and multiplied b y hundred to get percentage of initial weight gain. Sucrose Concentration (M) sort 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group Avg 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 . 25 104 106 108 102 106 108 105. 6667 0. 5 cx 107 112 113 110 112 110. 3733 0. 75 115 99 122 120 121 119 116 This is the table of the class raw data in % of initial weight gain. Discussion The hypothesis that I made earlier if sucrose concentration increases in the selectively permeable baggies, then osmosis would increase with it, was validated by this experiment. Different concentrations of sucrose changed the rate of osmosis. The final weight prove to be a significant gain.The line graph shows the greater the concentration of sucrose in the solution, the greater the weight gain. The weight gain also increases directly with the increase of sucrose in the solution which demonstrates osmosis. Even though my hypothesis was proven correct, there could find been a few lab errors that office of threw the initial and fi nal weight gain off by an insignificant number. The baggies may not have been filled up exactly half way and things of that nature. In any case, the experiment proved a success as we got to see osmosis taking place and results that occur from diffusion.

Being on Time Essay

cosmos at the right dumbfound at the right prison term for any soulfulness is extremely historic to the chance(a) life and military life. beingness dependable, accountable, and disciplined are all crucial factors that go along with it. Being on period shows that a person is dependable and have his or her priorities straight. Being where one call for to be at the right cadence always one of the most important aspects of allthing you want to pull ahead in. Failure to be on duration non only hinders your duration to suck up tasks done solely overly wastes the duration of those waiting on you. If you want to fix this use good time focusing.It is important to realize that it is necessary for a person to h onetime(a) themselves at a higher standard if the privation to excel in life, the military, or whatever you wish to succeed in. Punctuality remains and always entrust be an extremely vital aspect of military bearing and discipline. It has a direct connection to a pe rsons appearance, task effectiveness, and essentially every aspect of life and responsibility. I can non place copious importance on how significant being on time constantly is. For instance a person who is new-fashioned or does not report at all to a place at the time stated effectively compromises and reduces the efficiency of which the task or mission at hand can be completed. It in like manner makes it so other people are waiting on you to put out information.This makes it so you waste their time so then they may be late for something and you make them look bad. No one should every try to be sabotaging someone else because of their laziness and inability to be considerate of others. not being on time also shows that you are not accountable or unaccountable. This is also a direct reflection of yourself and what others relish they should treat you like. Like a wise man once state If you act like a child you forget be treated like a child. And truly what grown man or women wa nts to be treated like they are 15 years old and have people hold their hand constantly. Not I not you not anyone.Also by getting this cause from the effect u made of acting like a child it also makes your ability to exceed and excel in life or the military diminish greatly. Also it makes you undependable and thats never a good trait to have. Time management is a way to sic this problem. By setting alarms to get up on time, leaving sooner to give yourself enough time to get to one place to another, and fashioning sure you have enough time to do the things you indigence to do or the things you want to do.Also if you set things up the night onward you will not be in such a rush to get things done the next day. If you do not have good time management you will fail in just about every aspect of life in or out of the military. Remember to plan ahead. Good time management is a major key to not make these kinds of mistakes. In conclusion being on time greatly reflects your dependabilit y, accountability, and discipline. These factors affect your opportunity to excel and be the best you can be. Also good time management is key and a way to correct the problem of not being on time.Being on Time Es rateBeing on time is very important. It is a sign of measure to the person you are confrontation. If you are always late, youre creating a bad reputation for yourself. People feel they cant trust you or rely on you, so it impacts relationships. It also impacts self-esteem. Being late is upsetting to others and stressful for the one who is late. Peoples stress level is very high when theyre late. Theyre racing, worried, and anxious. They spend the first few minutes apologizing. And thats not the best way to making a good impression.So if you want to be on time you must first code out why you are always late. The reason can usually be classified as either technical or psychological. For example if youre always late by a distinct amount of time 5 minutes some generation, 15, or even 40 minutes other times it is likely that the cause is technical. Its a case of bad planning, of thinking you need less time than you actually do. Another technical difficulty for some people is the inability to say no to additive commitments when theyre short on time. precisely if you are literally always 10 minutes late, its psychological. Youre arriving exactly when you want. The question is why? For some people, its a resistance thing. They dont want to do what other people expect them to. Another category is the crisis-maker. These are people who cannot get themselves together until they get an adrenaline rush. They need to be under the gun to get them selves moving. There are also people who are late because they worry they wont have nothing to do while waiting. This problem can be solved easily.Always carry a book or magazine. So you arent feeling bored and you dont have the feeling of excess time when you are waiting. And thats not the only thing that can help yo u to deal with lateness. You can also Clean out your purse or briefcase each evening so its ready to go the next morning. Know how much money is in your wallet so you wont last out of cash at an awkward time. Give up that one last thing before walking out the door. Think about what you could do with an extra five minutes for every place where you arrive early. Review your plans for the rest of the day and make note of things that have changed. Keep a clock in a prominent location so you can check it quickly when you have to straggle your activities. Always keep keys, purse and backpack on hooks and a shelf by the throttle door. Set your clocks 5 to 10 minutes ahead. Although remember that at dinner party its rude to arrive early you might surprise the host and find him in his bathrobe vacuuming. In Japan, China, Germany and the join States being on time is the rule. In other places, such as Latin America promptitude is rare.Punctuality exhibits respect for the time of oth ers you do not waste their time while they wait for you. But it makes it difficult for Germans to act spontaneously. You cant in reality call someone and say, Lets go for a coffee. Many Germans will want that date in their diaries for at least a week. buttocks in the technological dark ages, you couldnt contact people so easily, so you made an suit to meet them on time. Nowadays if you are running late you simply call the person and detainment or cancel the meeting. However that should not become a habit, because you may delay, but time will not.I used to be late all the time. But Ive got tired of running checkmate the street to catch the bus and bored of explaining to everyone why Im late again. So I decided to deal with the problem. First step was setting my clocks 5 min ahead and it really works for me. But I realized that everything is in my head. I just have to decide that the meeting or event is just too important for me to be late. I wont say Im always on time, but Im t rying. As someone else state Better late than never, but better never late pic.

Least squares

The backbone of analytic methods consists of various mathematical and procedural concepts to represent relations between points in the object, their corresponding images and running(a) procedures to solve specific problems. Analytical photogrammetric procedures may be considered along three operational stages, each invol ving specific instruments (Fig. 6. 1), viz. , those used for acquisition of image data (mensural), those used for data-processing and analyses (computational) and those used for let out or presentation of the results.In view of the above, we would study the historical developments first-class honours degreely with regard to the concepts and next with regard to the instruments and their potentials for the future. A mathematical model, in expressing the relevant concept, provides insight into the underlying chain of events. There is no mystery nigh the way in which this insight is achieved. The mathematical models have no scientific value unless they have been fo rmalize adequately through experience and research. Scientific validation is an openended process. As a mathematical model is successfully tested and used, it becomes established.Otherwise it stands to be changed, modified or simply dropped. We have witnessed this through the historical development of analytical photogrammetry. Furthermore, photogrammetry being an applied science, it is the content and not the form of the mathematical statement (language) that matters most. Thus we have detect that mathematical and operational concepts have been adapted to circumstances without really changing the basic contents. The following sections would highlighting the conceptual developments without going into personal . details.Hauck (1883) established the relationship between projective geometry and photogrammetry_ This should be considered to be the most primordial geometric concept and the basis of most classic analytical photogrammetric developments. Ernst Abbe, the cofounder of the Ge rman Zeiss Works in 1871 started main(prenominal) studies and tests for optical elements on the basis of rigorous mathematical analyses. F. Stolze discovered the principle of the floating mark in 1892 while Carl Pulfrich also of the Zeiss group developed a practicable method of measuring and deriving spacial dimensions from stereo-pholographic images with floating marks.He presented in 1901 the ZeissPulfrich Stereocomparator by supplementing Eduard von Orels (1877-1941) first prototype Stereoautograph at the 73 rd Conference of Natural Scientists and Physicians held at Hamburg. Separately, a ssimilar stereocomparator was invented in 1901 by Henry G. Fourcade (1865-1948) of South Africa. He presented this at the Philosophical Society of mantel Town. Sebastian Finsterwalder (1862-1951) in a series of publications during 1899 to 1937 established a very sthrong foundation for analytical photogrammetry.In these he brought close to the geometric relations which govern resection and in tersection as well as relative and absolute orientations. He predicted the future possibility of nadir point triangulation 311 and the applicatian af phatagrammetry to. astrageadetic measurements. He also. out-of-the-way(prenominal)mulated the basic laws af errar prapagatian in lang strip triangulatians. He was prabably the first persan to. use vectar terminalagy in phatagrammetry literature (Finsterwalder 1899, 1932). Eduard Dalezal 1862-1955) af Vienna, Austria pravided great internatianal driving spirit as he became the faunding President af the Internatianal Saciety far Phatagrammetry in 1909. He also. created the Internatianal Archives af phatagrammetry. viz. , the usefulness af auxiliary data and instruments in order to. keep down propagation of systematic errors in strip triangulation and the practical advantage of using wide-angle cameras. Heinrich Wild (1877-1951) presented in 1926 at the Second International Congress at Berlin his modified plotter prototype known as Poli ce Autograph.